RESUMEN: Dada la relevancia que adquiere la Educación para la Ciudadanía en Chile en el currículo nacional y la política pública, interesa indagar cómo una carrera de Pedagogía en Educación Primaria del norte de Chile aborda la enseñanza de la Educación para la Ciudadanía, y? cómo este abordaje influye en las representaciones sociales que el profesorado en formación construye sobre su rol en el desarrollo de competencias ciudadanas del estudiantado. La investigación se sitúa desde un paradigma cualitativo-interpretativo, utiliza el estudio de caso para abordar sus objetivos. Los resultados preliminares evidencian que el enfoque utilizado por la carrera ha tensionado el desarrollo de una ciudadanía con pertinencia territorial, que considera clave asumir un compromiso activo con la protección del entorno natural, social y cultural. Lo anterior impacta en el desarrollo de unas determinadas representaciones sociales sobre el rol del profesorado en la promoción de las ciudadanías para el contexto escolar. RESUMEN pública estudiantado cualitativointerpretativo, cualitativointerpretativo cualitativo interpretativo, interpretativo cualitativo-interpretativo objetivos territorial natural cultural escolar

ABSTRACT: Given the relevance that Citizenship Education acquires in Chile’s national curriculum and public policy, there is interest in investigating how a Pedagogy degree in Primary Education in northern Chile addresses the teaching of Citizenship Education and how this approach influences the social representations that training teachers construct regarding their role in developing students’ civic competencies. The research is situated within a qualitative-interpretative paradigm, using a case study approach to address its objectives. The preliminary results show that the approach used by the program has strained the development of citizenship with territorial relevance, which is considered vital to assuming an active commitment to protecting the natural, social, and cultural environment. The above, in turn, impacts the development of specific social representations about the role of teachers in promoting citizenship in the school context. ABSTRACT Chiles s policy students competencies qualitativeinterpretative qualitative interpretative paradigm objectives natural environment above turn context

Abstract Lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) is an ornamental species used as a potted plant or cut flower, its popularity is due to the diversity of colors, number of flower buds, and shelf life. Nevertheless, during the first phases of development, problems such as foliar chlorosis and root diseases affects most cultivars, causing poor growth, thin stems, and few flowers. The use of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) improved plant growth as these microbes colonize the plant system root. Therefore, in order to provide better conditions for the stem development, the aim of this work was to evaluate the individual and combined effect of Bacillus subtilis (PGPR) and Glomus intraradices (AMF) on the growth and postharvest quality of the stems of lisianthus cv. Mariachi. Then commercial product Alubión-X (Bacillus subtilis (PGPR) and mycorrhizal fungus (Glomus intraradices) were used. The variables evaluated were stem height and diameter, foliar area, leaves number and in postharvest, buds number, open and diameter of flowers and stem dry weight. The results showed a significant effect of the inoculation of G. intraradices on the size (66.92 cm) of the stem, as well as the combination of B. subtilis + G. intraradices (65.51 cm) compared to the control (36.9 cm). The number of buds and open flowers of the stems treated with G. intraradices were 33.35 and 23.9 respectively significantly higher than the control. G. intraradices alone is the best option for applying to lisianthus, when compared to applying with B. Subtilis.

Resumo Lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) é uma espécie ornamental utilizada como planta em vaso ou flor de corte, cuja popularidade se deve à diversidade de cores, número de botões florais e vida útil. No entanto, durante as primeiras fases de desenvolvimento, problemas como clorose foliar e doenças radiculares afetam a maioria das cultivares, causando baixo crescimento, hastes finas e poucas flores. O uso de rizobactérias promotoras de crescimento de plantas (PGPR) e fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (FMA) melhora o crescimento das plantas, pois esses microrganismos colonizam a raiz do sistema vegetal. Portanto, a fim de proporcionar melhores condições para o desenvolvimento da haste, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito individual e combinado de Bacillus subtilis (PGPR) e Glomus intraradices (FMA) sobre o crescimento e a qualidade pós-colheita em hastes de lisianthus cv . Mariachi. Utilizando-se o produto comercial Alubión-X (Bacillus subtilis, PGPR) e o fungo micorrízico Glomus intraradices. Os resultados mostraram um efeito significativo da inoculação de G. intraradices no tamanho (66,92 cm) da haste, bem como a combinação de B. subtilis + G. intraradices (65,51 cm) em relação ao controle (36,9 cm). O número médio de botões e flores abertas das hastes tratadas com G. intraradices foram 33,35 e 23,9 respectivamente, significativamente maiores que o controle n ão tratado. G. intraradices sozinho é a melhor opção para aplicar em lisianthus, quando comparado a aplicação isolada de B. Subtilis.

Abstract: The primary objective of this research study is to assess entrepreneurial profiles of young Chileans by using the Motivation Theory approach and the personal entrepreneurship characteristics (PEC) survey. The sample consists of 380 young Chileans (18 to 25 years old) from Talca, Chile. Cluster analysis using the k-means algorithm was used to process and analyze data. The results show the existence of two entrepreneurial profiles that differ mainly by age and by previous exposure to business activity through family ventures. This suggests that there is an impact of previous entrepreneurial training in the sample surveyed. In addition, the results show that planning and quality assurances are the most relevant skills to explain the profiles of both subgroups. This suggests the need to develop transversal skills such as opportunity detection and proactivity. It is concluded that exposure to entrepreneurial activities favors entrepreneurial motivation in young Chileans and that age is a relevant factor for training new entrepreneurs.

Resumen: El objetivo de este estudio es analizar los perfiles emprendedores de jóvenes chilenos mediante el enfoque de la Teoría de la Motivación utilizando la encuesta “características emprendedoras personales” (CEP). La muestra esta compuesta por 380 jóvenes entre 18 y 25 años de Talca, Chile. Para procesar los datos, se utilizó el análisis clúster mediante el algoritmo de k-medias. Los resultados evidencian la existencia de dos perfiles emprendedores principalmente diferenciados por la edad y la exposición a la actividad empresarial mediante emprendimientos familiares, sugiriendo efectos de la formación emprendedora. Se evidencia que las habilidades de planificación y exigencia de calidad son las más relevantes para explicar el perfil de ambos subgrupos y se sugiere el desarrollo de habilidades transversales como la detección de oportunidades y proactividad. Se concluye que la exposición de los jóvenes a actividades de emprendimiento es favorable y potencia su motivación emprendedora y que la edad es un factor relevante en la formación de los nuevos emprendedores.

Resumen En el cultivo de fresa (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) la desinfección al suelo es principalmente por métodos químicos. Debido a los potenciales efectos negativos de los desinfectantes químicos hacia el ambiente, actualmente se estudian productos menos agresivos o sistemas alternativos como los cultivos en sustratos; sin embargo, no se cuenta con suficiente información del efecto que estas alternativas tienen sobre el rendimiento de la planta. El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar el efecto del sustrato tratado antes de plantación con metam sodio (MS) o mediante inoculación con micorrizas sobre el rendimiento y materia seca acumulada de los cultivares de fresa Zamorana y Festival. Plantas crecidas en sustratos preparados con peatmoss y perlita, con o sin composta y tratados o no con MS o micorrizas se distribuyeron completamente al azar en arreglo factorial 3 × 2 × 2 (tratamiento de sustrato, mezcla de materiales y cultivares) en un invernadero de vidrio. Ni el MS ni las micorrizas afectaron significativamente los componentes de rendimiento ni la distribución de materia seca en los órganos de la planta. La adición de composta al sustrato tampoco afectó el rendimiento ni el número de frutos por planta, pero resultó en menor peso del fruto (11.3 g) en comparación con sustratos sin composta (12.1 g, P < 0.03). También se observó una reducción de 46.0 % (P < 0.0001), 15.2 % (P < 0.00189) y 12.4 % (P < 0.0195) en materia seca acumulada en raíz, hoja y total, respectivamente, en plantas cultivadas con composta. Zamorana tuvo mayor rendimiento y peso de fruto que Festival, con 410.2 vs. 345.5 g/planta (P < 0.006) y 12.8 vs. 10.6 g/fruto (P < 0.0001), respectivamente. La producción de fresa en los sustratos estudiados no requiere tratamiento previo del material y Zamorana muestra mejor potencial que Festival para producción en sustrato por su mayor rendimiento y peso de fruto.

Summary In the strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) industry, soil disinfection is mainly done by chemical methods. Due to the potential negative effects from soil disinfectants to the environment, less aggressive products or alternative systems such as growing on substrates are currently being studied; however, there is not enough information on the effect that these alternatives have on plant performance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the substrate treated before planting with metam sodium (MS) or by inoculation with mycorrhiza on yield and accumulation of dry matter of the Zamorana and Festival strawberry cultivars. Plants grown on substrates prepared with peat-moss and perlite, with or without compost and treated or not with MS or mycorrhiza were randomly distributed following a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (substrate treatment, mixture of media and cultivars) into a glasshouse. Neither MS nor mycorrhiza significantly affected the yield components nor the dry matter distribution in the plant organs. The addition of compost to the substrate did not affect the yield or the number of fruits per plant either, but resulted in a lower weight of the fruit (11.3 g) compared to substrates without compost (12.1 g, P < 0.03). A reduction of 46.0 % (P < 0.0001), 15.2 % (P < 0.0189) and 12.4 % (P < 0.0195) was also observed in accumulated dry matter in root, leaf and total, respectively, in plants grown with compost. Zamorana had higher yield and fruit weight than Festival, with 410.2 vs. 345.5 g/plant (P < 0.006) and 12.8 vs. 10.6 g/fruit (P < 0.0001), respectively. Strawberry production in the studied substrates does not require prior treatment of the substrates; Zamorana shows better potential than Festival for production on substrate because of its higher yield and fruit weight.

Abstract The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) has proven to be efficient in increasing the yield of plants. Few studies show its effect on fruit quality, but none indicate its interaction with post-harvest treatments during its shelf life. Therefore, the objective of this work was to determine the quality of the ‘Maradol red’ papaya fruits from plants inoculated with Glomus mosseae (730 spores 100 g-1 inoculant) and their response to storage for 10 and 20 days at 10 ºC , treated with a ripening inhibitor (1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). The results showed that the inoculation of inoculated papaya plants significantly reduces the weight loss of the fruits. The application of 1-MCP maintained firmness in the fruits stored for 10 days and delayed their loss for three more days in those stored for 20 days. AMF inoculation did not significantly affect the response of papaya fruits to treatment with 1-MCP in both storage periods at 10 °C.

Resumen El uso de hongos micorrízicos arbusculares (HMA) ha probado ser eficiente al incrementar el rendimiento de las plantas. Son pocos los estudios que muestran su efecto en la calidad del fruto, pero ninguno señala su interacción con tratamientos postcosecha durante su vida de anaquel. Por lo que el objetivo del presente trabajo fue determinar la calidad de los frutos de papaya ‘Maradol roja’ procedentes de plantas inoculadas con Glomus mosseae (730 esporas 100 g-1 inoculante) y su respuesta al almacenamiento por 10 y 20 días a 10 ºC, tratados con un inhibidor de la maduración (1-metilciclopropeno (1-MCP). Los resultados mostraron que la inoculación de plantas de papaya inoculadas reduce significativamente la pérdida de peso de los frutos. La aplicación de 1-MCP mantuvo la firmeza en los frutos almacenados por 10 días y retrasó su pérdida por tres días más en los almacenados por 20 días. La inoculación de HMA no afectó significativamente la respuesta de los frutos de papaya al tratamiento con 1-MCP en ambos periodos de almacenamiento a 10 °C.

Abstract On average, the yield of prickly pear Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. is low, being 5.5 t ha-1 year-1. The prickly pear cactus cladodes have only budding in the periphery, representing 30% of total sprouts/cladode, wasting the lateral spaces of the stem. Employing biostimulant in conjunction with plastic cover and irrigation to increase flower budding and yield is the objective of this research. 4-year-old ‘Roja purpura’ cactus plants were used, with a planting distance of 3 x 4 m. There were two factors: 1) Thidiazuron dose: 0 ppm, 400 ppm, 800 ppm. 2) Joint plastic cover with irrigation: without cover and without irrigation, without cover and with irrigation, with irrigation and without cover, with irrigation and with cover, in a 3x4 factorial arrangement, with 12 treatments and three repetitions in divided plots. The experimental unit was a group of four cladodes. At 44 days after applying Thidiazuron, the 800 ppm TDZ treatment obtained a higher percentage of flower sprouts with 53.9%, followed by irrigation cover and 400 ppm of TDZ with 46.8%, exceeding 12.7% of the control. Twenty-two days after the application of TDZ, the plants with plastic cover began to revert flower sprouts to vegetative, this phenomenon and the appearance of new sprouts, both vegetative and floral, stopped 44 days after applying TDZ, this suggests that the cover at raising and maintaining high temperature could stimulate vegetative sprouting and cause floral reversal.

Resumen En promedio, el rendimiento de tuna Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. es bajo, siendo 5.5 t ha-1 año-1. Los cladodios de nopal tunero tienen únicamente brotación en la periferia, representando 30% de brotes totales/cladodio, desaprovechando los espacios laterales de la penca. Emplear bioestimulante en conjunto con cubierta plástica y riego para aumentar brotación floral y rendimiento es el objetivo de esta investigación. Se usaron plantas de nopal tunero ‘Roja purpura’ de 4 años de edad, con distancia de plantación de 3x4 m. Se tuvieron dos factores: 1) dosis de Thidiazurón: 0 ppm, 400 ppm, 800 ppm. 2) cubierta plástica conjunta con riego: sin cubierta y sin riego, sin cubierta y con riego, con riego y sin cubierta, con riego y con cubierta, en arreglo factorial 3x4, con 12 tratamientos y tres repeticiones en parcelas divididas. La unidad experimental fue un grupo de cuatro cladodios. A 44 días después de aplicar Thidiazurón, el tratamiento 800 ppm de TDZ, obtuvo mayor porcentaje de brotes florales con 53.9%, seguido por cubierta con riego y 400 ppm de TDZ con 46.8%, superando 12.7% del testigo. Veintidós días después de la aplicación de TDZ, las plantas con cubierta plástica comenzaron a revertir yemas florales a vegetativas, este fenómeno y la aparición de nuevos brotes, tanto vegetativos como florales se detuvieron 44 días después de aplicar TDZ, esto sugiere que la cubierta al elevar y mantener la temperatura alta pudo estimular brotación vegetativa y ocasionar reversión floral.

Summary Heliconia psittacorum L. f. × H. spathocircinata is an ornamental plant that is highly demanded nationally and internationally. One of the most important factors in the vegetative growth of heliconia plants is the provision of macronutrients, which have an important influence on yield and quality of flowers. Heliconia cv. Tropics was established in an open field plantation under an arrangement of 1 m between rows and 1.5 m between plants to separately evaluate the effect of the inoculation of 350 spores of Entrophospora colombiana and Funneliformis mosseae per plant on the vegetative growth of the plants. At the time of planting fertilization was applied in doses of 100-0-150, 100-30-150 and 100-60-150 kg ha-1 of N-P-K. Results showed that E. colombiana + 100-30-150 N-P-K stimulated the vegetative growth of Heliconia cv. Tropics; plant height, stem diameter, number of shoots, leaf area, chlorophyll content and root dry weight increased compared to the control. The dose 100-0-150 N-P-K significantly increased aerial dry weight, root dry weight and total dry matter. Results showed that E. colombiana was not as effective in the mycorrhizal colonization of the root system of heliconia plants compared to F. mosseae, which induced the highest rates. It was found that E. colombiana produced significantly more spores (1240) compared to F. mosseae (753); it was also observed that at higher concentration of P in fertilization the number of spores of E. colombiana decreased proportionally, while with F. mosseae the response was different. It is concluded that the inoculation with E. colombiana along with a fertilization dose of 100-30-150 NPK has greater potential to increase the production of Heliconia cv. Tropics.

Resumen La Heliconia L. f. psittacorum × H. spathocircinata es una planta de uso ornamental muy demandada a nivel nacional e internacional. Uno de los factores más importantes en el crecimiento vegetativo de plantas de heliconia es el aporte de macronutrientes, los cuales influyen de manera importante en el rendimiento y calidad de flores. Se estableció el cv. Tropics de heliconia a cielo abierto en un arreglo de 1 m entre surcos y 1.5 m entre plantas para evaluar el efecto de la inoculación, por separado, de 350 esporas de Entrophospora colombiana y Funneliformis mosseae por planta sobre el crecimiento vegetativo del cultivo. Al momento de la plantación se fertilizó con las dosis de 100-0-150, 100-30-150 y 100-60-150 kg ha-1 de N-P-K. Los resultados mostraron que E. colombiana + 100-30-150 N-P-K estimularon el crecimiento vegetativo de Heliconia cv. Tropics; se incrementó la altura de la planta, diámetro del tallo, número de brotes, área foliar, contenido de clorofila y peso seco radical con respecto al testigo. La dosis de 100-0-150 N-P-K incrementó significativamente el peso seco aéreo, el peso seco de la raíz y la materia seca total. Los resultados mostraron que E. colombiana no fue tan eficaz en la colonización micorrízica del sistema radical de las plantas de heliconia en comparación con F. mosseae, que indujo los mayores porcentajes de colonización. Se encontró que E. colombiana produjo significativamente más esporas (1240) en comparación con F. mosseae (753); también se observó que a mayor concentración de P en la fertilización el número de esporas de E. colombiana disminuyó proporcionalmente, mientras que con F. mosseae la respuesta fue diferente. Se concluye que la inoculación con E. colombiana junto con una dosis de fertilización de 100-30-150 NPK tiene mayor potencial para incrementar la producción de Heliconia cv. Tropics.

ABSTRACT Kinetic spectrophotometry methods have levels of accuracy and sensitivity which are comparable to those of other methods and have been used in the quantification of different pharmaceutical analytes in different matrices. This work describes an indirect kinetic spectrophotometric method for the determination of diphenhydramine by the alkaline oxidation with permanganate in pharmaceutical formulations (injection) and tap water spiked samples. Measurements of changes in absorbance at 610 nm were used as criterion of the reaction progress. The optimization of chemical variables of oxidation reaction was realized using experimental design by multivariate analysis. The optimized values were 20 min of reaction time, KMnO4 1.00x10−3 molL−1, Na2SO4 0.20 molL-1 and NaOH 0.20 molL-1. Under these conditions calibration curves were constructed. The detection limits obtained in pharmaceutical formulations (injection) and tap water spiked samples, were 9.65x10-7 mol L−1 and 1.23x10-6 mol L−1, respectively. The method is simple and does not require expensive instruments or complicated extraction steps of the reaction product

Abstract The consumption of nutraceutical foods, such as extracts of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces, improve health and prevent several diseases, attributable in part to the activity of their anthocyanins. Exposure of plants to high concentrations of some heavy metals stimulates the synthesis of anthocyanins; therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of foliar application of Zn and Cu at high concentrations on calyx yield, anthocyanin content and physicochemical characteristics in three roselle genotypes. The Criolla Guerrero, Criolla Michoacán and Reina Roja genotypes were sown under rainfed conditions. The foliage of the plants in vegetative stage was sprayed with Zn and Cu solutions separately, making in total four applications of 300 mg. L-1. Both elements reduced the calyx yield in Criolla Guerrero, did not modify it in Criolla Michoacán and in Reina Roja the Zn increased the yield by 15.9 %, achieving 1,232 kg. ha-1. In all genotypes, the applications of these elements improved the content of anthocyanins and titratable acidity and decreased the content of ascorbic acid. Criolla Michoacán had the highest increase in anthocyanins, with 187 % Cu and with 175 % Zn; however, this genotype did not exceed the final anthocyanin content in Reina Roja, which with Cu recorded 22.68 mg. g-1. Therefore, the application of these elements is an alternative to increase the content of anthocyanins, to which some nutraceutical qualities are attributed.

Resumen El consumo de alimentos nutracéuticos, como los extractos de cálices de jamaica (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), mejoran la salud y previenen varias enfermedades, esto atribuido en parte a la actividad de sus antocianinas. La exposición de las plantas a concentraciones altas de algunos metales pesados estimula la síntesis de antocianinas; por ello, el objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar el efecto de la aplicación foliar de Zn y Cu a concentraciones altas sobre el rendimiento de cálices, contenido de antocianinas y características físico-químicas en tres genotipos de jamaica. Se sembraron los genotipos Criolla Guerrero, Criolla Michoacán y Reina Roja bajo condiciones de lluvia estacional. El follaje de las plantas en etapa vegetativa se asperjó con soluciones de Zn y Cu por separado, realizando en total cuatro aplicaciones de 300 mg∙L-1. Ambos elementos redujeron el rendimiento de cálices en Criolla Guerrero, no lo modificaron en Criolla Michoacán y en Reina Roja el Zn incrementó el rendimiento en 15.9 %, logrando 1,232 kg∙ha-1. En todos los genotipos, las aplicaciones de estos elementos mejoraron el contenido de antocianinas y acidez titulable, y disminuyeron el contenido de ácido ascórbico. Criolla Michoacán presentó el mayor incremento de antocianinas, con Cu 187 % y con Zn 175 %; sin embargo, este genotipo no superó al contenido final de antocianinas en Reina Roja, que con Cu registró 22.68 mg∙g-1. Por lo que la aplicación de estos elementos es una alternativa para incrementar el contenido de antocianinas, a las cuales se les atribuyen algunas cualidades nutracéuticas.

Abstract: The nutritional quality of tender cactus stem is related to its mineral composition, which is variable due to several factors. Fertilization source is one of them. In tender cactus stems (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.), response to application of organic and inorganic fertilizers are mainly focused on yield and to a lesser extent to the nutritional quality. The objective was to determine the effect of mineral and organic fertilization including the use of compost and inoculation with mycorrhiza on mineral composition of tender cactus stem harvested for human consumption. The studied treatments were: 1) Cow manure plus 17N-17P-17K fertilizer (E + T 17); 2) Compost and Glomus mosseae mycorrhizal fungi (C + M); 3) Mineral fertilizers (FM); and 4) Control, no fertilizer, compost or mycorrhizal fungi added. Drip irrigation was applied once a week or when the soil moisture tension reached 35 cbar. Fertilization source had a significant effect on the concentrations of Mn, Zn and B but not on N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe and Cu in dry matter tender of cactus stem. The highest concentration of Mn (81.38 mg kg-1) was achieved with the FM treatment. Highest content of Zn (44.11 mg kg-1) was reached with the fertilization of E + T 17, and for B (156.09 and 151.77 mg kg-1) with FM and E + T 17 respectively.

Resumen: La calidad nutritiva del nopal verdura, está relacionada con su composición mineral y es variable debido a varios factores, uno de ellos es fertilización. En nopal verdura (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) la respuesta a la aplicación de fertilizantes orgánicos e inorgánicos se ha enfocado principalmente al rendimiento y en menor proporción con la calidad nutricional. El objetivo fue conocer el efecto de la fertilización mineral y orgánica incluyendo el uso de compost y la inoculación con micorriza en la composición mineral de cladodios jóvenes para consumo humano al momento de cosecha. Los tratamientos estudiados fueron: 1) Estiércol bovino más fertilizante 17N-17P-17K (E + T 17); 2) Compost más inoculación con el hongo micorrícico Glomus mosseae (C + M); 3) Fertilizantes minerales (FM), aplicados por fertirriego; y 4) Testigo, sin aplicación de fertilizante y sin micorriza. El riego por goteo fue aplicado una vez por semana o cuando la tensión de humedad en el suelo llegaba a 35 cbar. El tratamiento de fertilización tuvo un efecto significativo en las concentraciones de Mn, Zn y B, no así en N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe y Cu en el cladodio joven o nopalito. La más alta concentración de Mn (81.38 mg kg-1) se alcanzó con el tratamiento FM, la de Zn cuando se aplicó E + T 17 (44.11 mg kg-1), y en el caso de B con la fertilización de FM y E + T 17 (156.09 y 151.77 mg kg-1), respectivamente.

Brown rot fungi (BRF) are highly destructive wood degraders characterized by extensive degradation and mineralization of cellulose and hemicellulose, in most of the cases without causing a substantial removal of lignin. BRF have not a complete cellulase complex neither ligninolytic enzymes, therefore, has been hypothesized that to degrade wood components, a non-enzymatic mechanism based on ·ΟΗ radicals production through Fenton reaction is also involved. The availability of iron limits the Fenton reaction in wood biodegradation by BRF, because this metal (and other transition metals) is found in small amounts in wood. For this reason, it has been postulated that the fungus transport metals from the soil. To study the effect of soil and transition metal translocation (Fe, Cu, and Mn) on wood biodegradation by the BRF Gloeophyllum trabeum, Pinus radiata wood chips (20 years old) were incubated with forest soil in stationary tray bioreactor for a period until 16 weeks. Translocation of transition metals, mass and wood components (extractives, carbohydrates, and lignin) loss, the decrease of holocellulose viscosity and oxalic acid production were determined at different intervals of time. Wood on soil showed a high translocation of transition metals mainly Fe. Translocation of soil metals into the wood was relevant for improving fungal growth and wood decay, which is correlated significantly with higher loss mass and wood components compared with degradation without soil.

Brown rot fungi produce a special pattern of wood decay. In the first stages of biodegradation, fast depolymerisation of holocellulose causes a rapid loss of wood strength while lignin is not substantially depolymerized. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is a powerful tool for examining changes in wood chemistry. FTIR is an accurate, non-destructive technique, which usually requires a minimum of sample preparation and sample size. Principal component analysis-based two-dimensional (PCA2D) correlation spectroscopy of a spectral data set was applied to assess temporal brown-rot wood decay. Pinus radiata with soil support was degraded by brown rot fungi Gloeophyllum trabeum for a period of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks simulating the natural process of biodegradation. Decayed samples were monitored and analyzed periodically by FTIR. Most of the autopeaks had contributions from lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses. The main effect observed by PCA2D correlation was the significant decrease in the intensities of bands predominantly in the region of 2000-1000 cm-1, associated with polysaccharides in the biodegraded wood. An increase in the intensities of bands at 1698 and 1664 cm-1 associated with the oxidation of wood components, mostly lignin, was also observed. Detailed analysis of asynchronous map showed that the wood oxidation began after the depolymerisation of polysaccharides.

The aim of this study was to evaluate variation in the physical and chemical properties of fermented cocoa beans with cocoa beans transfer between wooden fermentation boxes manually (M) and semi-mechanized (SM) way. Mass temperature, moisture, pH, and total acidity of the cotyledon and pulp; the total polyphenol, anthocyanin, reducing sugar, theobromine, and caffeine content in fresh, fermented, and dried beans; and percentage of fermented beans and time required to move beans during fermentation were determined. The cocoa used grew in the Pachiza district of the San Martin region of Peru. Cocoa sampling was each 0, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, and 168 h of fermentation. The cocoa mass temperature was highest with both removal systems after 96 h of fermentation. M cotyledon and pulp samples had the highest moisture content and titratable acidity, while cotyledon and pulp pH with both systems were statistically equal. In contrast, fermented beans had a higher polyphenol, anthocyanin, reducing sugar, theobromine, and caffeine content with SM. SM produced the greatest amount of fermentation (91.67%) and required the shortest amount of time to move beans (78.56 min). In conclusion, the system of fermentation of cocoa beans with SM was faster and produced fermented grains with high chemical quality

Este estudio de caso trata de exponer los flujos de conocimiento y su relación con la competitividad de la industria manufacturera de exportación del calzado en México a través del modelo teórico y prueba de hipótesis aplicada (coeficiente de determinación R2 y <img border=0 width=15 height=13 src="../img/a06_simbolo01.gif" alt=s1>chi cuadrado). La investigación se llevó a cabo empleando un método cuantitativo basado en 3 etapas: 1) datos de recaudación de exportaciones de 120 meses (2003-2012); 2) la aplicación del modelo y 3) análisis de correlación entre el conocimiento y la competitividad. La investigación demuestra que el flujo de conocimiento en las necesidades mexicanas de exportación de la industria del calzado apoyo porque todavía es, en muchos casos, muy pobre, por otro lado, revela algunas mediciones de conocimiento positivos, simplemente en algunos casos en diferentes años.

This study case tries to expose the Knowledge flows and its relationship with the competitiveness of the footwear manufacturing exportation industry in Mexico trough a theoretical model and applied hypothesis test (determination coefficient R2 and chi square <img border=0 width=15 height=13 src="../img/a06_simbolo01.gif" alt=s1>). The research was conducted employing a quantitative method based in 3 stages: 1) Collection data from exportations of 120 months (2003-2012); 2) Model application, and 3) analysis of correlation between knowledge and competitiveness. The research corroborates that the knowledge flow in the Mexican footwear industry exportation needs support because still is, in many cases, very poor, on the other, reveals some hard positive knowledge measurements, just in some cases through different years.

The work was performed in order to determine the influence of organic fertilizer Vermicompost, Bokashi, Gallinaza to 10 and 5 t ha-1 and doses 230-0-300 (Ml) and 230 0-0 NPK g tree-1 on the foliar nutritional status of Manila Cotxtla 2 ('MC2'), Tommy Atkins ('TA') and Ataulfo ('A') mango cultivars. Prior to flowering and before harvest, foliar concentrations of N, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu were measured. The results indicate that, prior to flowering highest concentration of N was in 'TA', Ca in 'A', and Zn, Fe and Mn in 'MC2'. Prior to harvest, 'TA' induced more concentration of K and Zn, 'A' higher in Ca, Mg and Cu, highest concentration of N in 'MC2'. Among sources of fertilization, vermicompost 5 t ha-1, outperformed to 230-0-300 g of NPK per tree in Ca concentration (before flowering) and Cu (pre-harvest), whereas this dose exceeded all organic fertilizers and control in the concentration of Mn (pre-harvest). N values (1.22-1.38 g 100 g-1 ms) are in the proper range, K (0.87 to 2.02 g 100 g-1 ms) above the optimum range, Ca (0.58 to 0.73 g 100 g-1 ms) and Mg (0.07 to 0.11 g 100 g-1 ms) below the optimal range, while Zn (22.9-35.8 mg kg-1 ms), Fe (70.3-102.5 mg kg-1 ms), Mn (49.9-89.9 mg kg-1 ms) and Cu (11.4-19.7 mg kg-1 ms) are in appropriate ranges. It is concluded that the nutritional composition of foliage presented variations within each cultivar and between cultivars, the amount of nutrients removed is also influenced by cultivar and growing conditions; except for Cu and Mn, organic and mineral sources induce similar behavior in the foliar nutritional status.

El trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de conocer la influencia de los fertilizantes orgánicos lombricompost, bocashi, gallinaza a 10 y 5 t ha-1 y las dosis 230-0-300 y 230-0-0 g de NPK por árbol sobre la nutrición foliar de mango 'Manila Cotxtla 2' ('MC2'), 'Tommy Atkins' ('TA') y 'Ataúlfo' ('A'). Previo a floración y previo a cosecha se midieron las concentraciones foliares de N, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Mn y Cu. Los resultados indican que, previo a floración la mayor concentración de N fue en 'TA', de Ca en 'A', y de Zn, Fe y Mn en 'MC2'; previo a cosecha, 'TA' indujo más concentración de K y Zn, 'A' superior en Ca, Mg y Cu, 'MC2' mayor concentración de N. Entre fuentes de fertilización, lombricompost 5 t ha-1, superó a 230-0-300 g de N-P-K por árbol en concentración de Ca (previo a floración) y Cu (previo a cosecha), mientras que esta dosis superó a todos los fertilizantes orgánicos y testigo en la concentración de Mn (previo a cosecha). Los valores de N (1,22-1,38 g 100 g-1 ms) se encuentran en el rango adecuado, K (0,87-2,02 g 100 g-1 ms) por arriba del rango óptimo, Ca (0,58-0,73 g 100 g-1 ms) y Mg (0,07-0,11 g 100 g-1 ms) por debajo del rango óptimo, mientras que Zn (22,9-35,8 mg kg-1 ms), Fe (70,3-102,5 mg kg-1 ms), Mn (49,9-89,9 mg kg¹ ms) y Cu (11,4-19,7 mg kg-1 ms) se encuentran en rangos adecuados. Se concluye que la composición nutrimental del follaje presentó variaciones dentro de cada cultivar y entre cultivares, la cantidad de nutrimentos removidos también está influenciado por el cultivar y las condiciones del cultivo; a excepción de Cu y Mn, las fuentes orgánicas y minerales indujeron comportamientos nutrimentales foliares similares.